Perceived Life Expectancy Predicts Time Investment in Productive Aging Activities: An Ecological Momentary Assessment Study.

OBJECTIVES: Despite known benefits of productive aging, it is unclear what explains time allocation in productive activities. We investigated whether productive engagement in older people can be explained by their age, health, socioeconomic status, and perceived life expectancy in Hong Kong. METHODS: We interviewed 390 community-dwelling older persons for their health and perceived life expectancy, followed by a 7-day ecological momentary assessment to record their activities. RESULTS: A total of 366 participants who completed the study (age 75 ± 8.3 years; 79% women) reported an average perceived life expectancy of nearly 10 years. The majority (59%) engaged in productive activities. Estimates of the structural equation model (RMSEA = 0.046) showed that age and health were associated with productive engagement, mediated by perceived life expectancy. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Future efforts in promoting productive aging and related research should include interventions addressing perceived life expectancy, a potentially modifiable factor.

Health and social care service utilisation and associated expenditure among community-dwelling older adults with depressive symptoms.

AIMS: Late-life depression has substantial impacts on individuals, families and society. Knowledge gaps remain in estimating the economic impacts associated with late-life depression by symptom severity, which has implications for resource prioritisation and research design (such as in modelling). This study examined the incremental health and social care expenditure of depressive symptoms by severity. METHODS: We analysed data collected from 2707 older adults aged 60 years and over in Hong Kong. The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and the Client Service Receipt Inventory were used, respectively, to measure depressive symptoms and service utilisation as a basis for calculating care expenditure. Two-part models were used to estimate the incremental expenditure associated with symptom severity over 1 year. RESULTS: The average PHQ-9 score was 6.3 (standard deviation, s.d. = 4.0). The percentages of respondents with mild, moderate and moderately severe symptoms and non-depressed were 51.8%, 13.5%, 3.7% and 31.0%, respectively. Overall, the moderately severe group generated the largest average incremental expenditure (US$5886; 95% CI 1126-10 647 or a 272% increase), followed by the mild group (US$3849; 95% CI 2520-5177 or a 176% increase) and the moderate group (US$1843; 95% CI 854-2831, or 85% increase). Non-psychiatric healthcare was the main cost component in a mild symptom group, after controlling for other chronic conditions and covariates. The average incremental association between PHQ-9 score and overall care expenditure peaked at PHQ-9 score of 4 (US$691; 95% CI 444-939), then gradually fell to negative between scores of 12 (US$ - 35; 95% CI - 530 to 460) and 19 (US$ -171; 95% CI - 417 to 76) and soared to positive and rebounded at the score of 23 (US$601; 95% CI -1652 to 2854). CONCLUSIONS: The association between depressive symptoms and care expenditure is stronger among older adults with mild and moderately severe symptoms. Older adults with the same symptom severity have different care utilisation and expenditure patterns. Non-psychiatric healthcare is the major cost element. These findings inform ways to optimise policy efforts to improve the financial sustainability of health and long-term care systems, including the involvement of primary care physicians and other geriatric healthcare providers in preventing and treating depression among older adults and related budgeting and accounting issues across services.

The Contribution of Sense of Community to the Association Between Age-Friendly Built Environment and Health in a High-Density City: A Cross-Sectional Study of Middle-Aged and Older Adults in Hong Kong.

Sense of community may be shaped by the quality of the physical environment and has potential health implications. Based on a survey of 2,247 community-dwelling middle-aged and older adults living in Hong Kong, we tested the mediation effect of sense of community on the relationship between the quality of the built environment and physical and mental health using path analysis. The quality of the built environment was indicated by the age-friendliness of outdoor spaces and buildings. No direct association was found between the built environment and health outcomes, although age-friendly outdoor spaces were associated with better mental health. Sense of community mediated 14% of the total effect between outdoor spaces and mental health and 44.8% of the total effect between buildings and physical health, underscoring the importance of accommodating the social needs of middle-aged and older people in urban development in high-density cities.

Adapting the UCLA 3-item loneliness scale for community-based depressive symptoms screening interview among older Chinese: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: Loneliness is a significant and independent risk factor for depression in later life. Particularly in Asian culture, older people may find it less stigmatising to express loneliness than depression. This study aimed to adapt a simple loneliness screen for use in older Chinese, and to ascertain its relevance in detecting depressive symptoms as a community screening tool. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: This cross-sectional study was conducted among 1653 older adults aged 60 years or above living in the community in Hong Kong. This was a convenient sample recruited from four local non-governmental organisations providing community eldercare or mental healthcare services. All data was collected by trained social workers through face-to-face interviews. MEASURES: Loneliness was measured using an adapted Chinese version of UCLA 3-item Loneliness Scale, depression symptoms were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), and social support with emotional and instrumental support proxies (number of people who can offer help). Basic demographics including age, gender, education and living arrangement were also recorded. RESULTS: The average loneliness score was 3.9±3.0, and it had a moderate correlation with depressive symptoms (r=0.41, p<0.01). A loneliness score of 3 can distinguish those without depression from those with mild or more significant depressive symptoms, defined as a PHQ-9 score of ≥5 (sensitivity 76%, specificity 62%, area under the curve=0.73±0.01). Loneliness explained 18% unique variance of depressive symptoms, adding to age, living arrangement and emotional support as significant predictors. CONCLUSION: A 3-item loneliness scale can reasonably identify older Chinese who are experiencing depressive symptoms as a quick community screening tool. Its wider use may facilitate early detection of depression, especially in cultures with strong mental health stigma. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03593889.

Risk of self-harm after the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders in Hong Kong, 2000-10: a nested case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Psychiatric disorders are established risk factors for self-harm. However, variation in the risk of self-harm by specific psychiatric disorder and stratified by gender and age is rarely examined in population-representative samples. This study aimed to investigate the risk of self-harm following diagnosis of different psychiatric disorders in an Asian population, through a review of inpatient records retrieved from the Hong Kong Clinical Data Analysis and Reporting System (CDARS). METHODS: For this nested case-control study, the inpatient data of people admitted for any reason to Hong Kong public hospitals, between Jan 1, 2000, and Dec 31, 2010, were extracted from CDARS. Cases were people aged 10 years or older who had been admitted to inpatient care with a first-listed record of psychiatric disorder during the study period. The seven psychiatric disorders of interest were: depression, alcohol misuse or dependence, personality disorders, bipolar disorders, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and substance misuse or dependence. Two control patients were matched per case from a subsample of all individuals with the same gender, age, and admission time (ie, same calendar year and month), who did not have any record of the psychiatric disorders of interest. Any patients with a history of self-harm diagnosis before, or at the same time as, the first diagnosis of psychiatric disorder (cases) or admission (controls), were excluded. For each diagnostic category, a Cox proportional hazard regression model was fitted to estimate the adjusted hazard ratio (HR; plus 95% CIs) of associated self-harm, adjusting for gender, age, control-matched admission time, 20 districts of residence, physical comorbidities established as risk factors for self-harm (diabetes, asthma, migraine, epilepsy, HIV, and cancer), and presence of the six other psychiatric disorders. We repeated this analysis in subgroups stratified by gender (male and female) and by age (adolescent, 10-24 years; young adult, 25-44 years; middle-aged, 45-64 years; and older people, ≥65 years). FINDINGS: Between 2000 and 2010, we followed up a cohort of 86 353 people with a first-recorded diagnosis of a psychiatric disorder of interest, and 134 857 matched controls. The highest risk of self-harm was observed in patients with substance misuse or dependence (adjusted HR vs matched controls, 9·6 [95% CI 8·4-11·0]), followed by those with personality disorders (3·7 [2·8-4·9]) and alcohol misuse or dependence (3·2 [2·9-3·7]). When stratified by gender and age, the highest risk of self-harm behaviour was found in the substance misuse or dependence group for both genders (for female patients: adjusted HR vs matched controls, 7·7 [6·0-9·8]; and for male patients, 10·5 [8·9-12·4]), and for all age groups (adolescent: 9·6 [7·2-12·7]; young adults: 10·2 [8·4-12·3]; middle-aged: 11·2 [8·0-15·6], and older people: 3·2 [1·7-6·1]). INTERPRETATION: First-recorded diagnoses of psychiatric disorders were significantly associated with an elevated risk of subsequent self-harm. The associations varied considerably by diagnostic categories across gender and age subgroups. Our findings highlight the need to develop more efficient and targeted preventive measures in psychiatric care management, with specific attention to demographic characteristics linked to increased risk within the same diagnostic category. FUNDING: None.

Fostering Civic Awareness and Participation Among Older Adults in Hong Kong: An Empowerment-Based Participatory Photo-Voice Training Model.

Social and civic participation are important tenets for both the age-friendly city and active aging frameworks promoted by the World Health Organization. Yet older adults are often under-represented in civic affairs. This study examines the effects of using photo-voice as a method in facilitating older adults' civic participation. Specifically, an empowerment-based participatory photo-voice training model was implemented among older adults with limited formal education in Hong Kong. We conducted three focus groups comprising 12 older adults and one in-depth interview with a social worker. Findings revealed that photo-voice is an effective tool in capturing older adults' views that would have otherwise been difficult to articulate in words or in writing, and in enhancing older adults' ability and willingness to participate in community and civic affairs. These findings underscore the importance of using novel techniques to build a more inclusive society that incorporates the views of older adults.

Applying Item Response Theory Analysis to the Montreal Cognitive Assessment in a Low-Education Older Population.

The traditional application of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment uses total scores in defining cognitive impairment levels, without considering variations in item properties across populations. Item response theory (IRT) analysis provides a potential solution to minimize the effect of important confounding factors such as education. This research applies IRT to investigate the characteristics of Montreal Cognitive Assessment items in a randomly selected, culturally homogeneous sample of 1,873 older persons with diverse educational backgrounds. Any formal education was used as a grouping variable to estimate multiple-group IRT models. Results showed that item characteristics differed between people with and without formal education. Item functioning of the Cube, Clock Number, and Clock Hand items was superior in people without formal education. This analysis provided evidence that item properties vary with education, calling for more sophisticated modelling based on IRT to incorporate the effect of education.

Spontaneously Reported Symptoms by Informants Are Associated with Clinical Severity in Dementia Help-Seekers.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the predictive value of symptoms of dementia that the person or an informant noticed spontaneously in determining the clinical severity of dementia. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Community-based open-referral dementia assessment service in Hong Kong between 2005 and 2013. PARTICIPANTS: Help-seekers for dementia assessment service and their informants (N = 965 dyads). MEASUREMENTS: Participants underwent a clinical dementia interview based on the Clinical Dementia Rating. Spontaneous complaints that the person and the informant made that had prompted their help-seeking of groups with interview results suggestive of no impairment, mild cognitive impairment, and dementia were compared. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the predictive value of spontaneous complaints for clinical severity. Independent raters blinded to clinical results coded spontaneously reported symptoms into theoretical themes: memory, executive function, language, time and place orientation, neuropsychiatric, mood, and avolition. RESULTS: Memory problems were the most frequently reported complaints for participants (87.7%) and their informants (95.5%), followed by self-reported language (33.0%) and informant-reported orientation (33.0%) difficulties. Informant-reported but not self-reported symptoms predicted clinical severity. Compared with the persons themselves, informants reported more pervasive symptoms corresponding to clinical severity. Persons with dementia self-reported fewer types of symptoms than their healthy or mildly impaired counterparts. Spontaneously reported language and orientation symptoms by the informant distinguished persons with mild or worse dementia (P < .001, Nagelkerke coefficient of determination = 29.7%, percentage correct 85.6%). CONCLUSION: The type and pervasiveness of symptoms spontaneously that informants reported predicted clinical severity. This may provide a quick reference for triage.

Implementation of respiratory protection measures: Visitors of residential care homes for the elderly.

To evaluate the implementation of respiratory protection measures for and by visitors of residential care homes for the elderly in Hong Kong, a territory-wide cross-sectional survey was conducted. A total of 87 infection control officers, 1,763 health care workers, and 520 visitors from 87 homes completed the questionnaires. Rules on respiratory protection for visitors were found to vary across residential care homes for the elderly. Uncooperative visitors and inadequate resources were identified as major barriers in the implementation of such measures for visitors.

Neuropsychological Profile and Dementia Symptom Recognition in Help-Seekers in a Community Early-Detection Program in Hong Kong.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the neuropsychological and clinical profile of help-seekers in an early-detection community dementia program and to explore any relationship between profiles and time to seek help. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Early-detection community dementia program. PARTICIPANTS: Help-seekers (N = 1,005) with subjective cognitive complaints or complaints from an informant. MEASUREMENTS: Neurocognitive testing, including the Cantonese Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Clock Drawing Test, Digit Span, and Fuld Object Memory Evaluation and other clinical and functioning assessments, including the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR), activities of daily living (ADLs), instrumental ADLs (IADLs), and depressive symptoms. Time since the person or an informant reported that they first noticed symptoms. RESULTS: Eighty-six percent of help-seekers had at least very mild dementia (CDR score ≥0.5). Cognitive performance was moderately impaired (mean MMSE score 18.4 ± 6.1). They required some assistance with IADLs, had very mild ADL impairments, and had few depressive symptoms. Median time to seek assessment was 12 months (interquartile range 7-30 months) according to the person or the informant (an adult child in 75% of the sample). Using the median-split method, time to seek assessment was classified as early (0-12 months) and late (>12 months). Worse cognitive and IADL performance but not ADL performance or depressive symptoms were observed in late than in early help-seekers. Longer time intervals between symptom recognition and early assessment showed a trend of further impairments on all measures except ADLs. CONCLUSION: A time interval of more than 12 months between symptom recognition and early assessment appears to be associated with worse cognitive function upon presentation.

Predicting Adverse Health Outcomes in Nursing Homes: A 9-Year Longitudinal Study and Development of the FRAIL-Minimum Data Set (MDS) Quick Screening Tool.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the predictive validity of a quick frailty screening tool, the FRAIL-NH, for adverse health outcomes in nursing home residents, using variables from the Minimum Data Set (MDS). The screening items were compiled from the MDS for potential direct application in long-term care facilities using this health information system. DESIGN: Longitudinal follow-up study of nursing home residents with annual clinical assessment using the MDS and mortality data between 2005 and 2013. SETTING: Six nursing homes operated by a nongovernmental organization in Hong Kong. PARTICIPANTS: Participants included 2380 nursing home residents aged 65 years or older at study baseline. MEASUREMENTS: Frailty assessed using the FRAIL-NH model with items from the MDS. The model covers 8 areas: fatigue, resistance, ambulation, incontinence, polypharmacy, weight loss, nutritional approach, and help with dressing. Adverse health outcomes in subsequent years were measured: incident falls, worsening activities of daily living (ADL) function, hospitalization, and death. RESULTS: Using a cutoff score of 5 on the FRAIL-NH, the prevalence of frailty was 58.5% in this nursing home sample. Frailty as identified using the FRAIL-NH predicts incident falls, worsening ADL function, hospitalization, and death (hazard ratios [HR] 2.00-3.73). This remained significant after adjusting for sociodemographic and other clinical characteristics. Each level of increase on the FRAIL-NH has strong distinguishing power on the incidence of adverse outcomes. Intermediate frailty status (score 1-4) also significantly predicts adverse health outcomes (HR 1.57-2.06). CONCLUSION: The FRAIL-NH is a quick screening tool that can be used to identify frail and prefrail nursing home residents at risk of adverse health outcomes. It can be applied using variables from the MDS, allowing direct adoption in long-term care facilities already using this health information system.

The Effect of Depressive Symptoms and Antidepressant Use on Subsequent Physical Decline and Number of Hospitalizations in Nursing Home Residents: A 9-Year Longitudinal Study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether depressive symptoms and antidepressant use at baseline predict the subsequent decline in physical functioning and number of hospitalizations in nursing home residents. DESIGN: Observational study based on Minimum Data Set (MDS) 2.0. SETTING: Six nursing homes in Hong Kong. PARTICIPANTS: All nursing home residents (n = 1076) assessed with the MDS 2.0 in 2005 followed until 2013. MEASUREMENTS: Outcome variables included annual performance in activities of daily living (ADLs) and number of hospitalizations within 90 days before each assessment. The presence of depressive symptoms at baseline was measured by the Resident Assessment Protocol triggered from the MDS 2.0 assessment. Records of antidepressant use and other control variables were exacted directly from the MDS 2.0 assessment. RESULTS: The presence of baseline depressive symptoms did not have significant association with baseline ADLs and number of hospitalizations according to the multilevel mixed-effect model. However, it was associated with a faster deterioration of physical functioning (coefficient 0.03; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.00-0.07) and an increase in the number of hospitalizations (coefficient 0.05; 95% CI 0.03-0.07). No significant difference between elders using antidepressants and elders who were free from depressive symptoms was observed. If depressive symptoms were presented but antidepressants were not used, a much sharper decline was evident (coefficient 0.06; 95% CI 0.02-0.09). CONCLUSIONS: This study provided evidence that the presence of depressive symptoms is associated with more utilization of health care services. However, the use of antidepressants may play a significant role in altering the trajectory. The presence of depressive symptoms is a worrisome but treatable condition. Effective intervention/treatment should be called on.

Early intervention and evaluation for adult-onset psychosis: the JCEP study rationale and design.

AIM: Psychotic disorders incur substantial long-term burdens to patients and society. Early intervention (EI) during the initial years of psychotic disorders can improve long-term outcome. In Hong Kong, a pilot EI programme (EASY, Early Assessment Service for Young people with psychosis) had been set up since 2001 to serve clients under 25 years of age. Although EASY has been effective in improving outcome, consolidation of early psychosis work requires further development. METHODS: The present paper describes a new EI development which targets adult patients with psychosis in Hong Kong. The Jockey Club Early Psychosis (JCEP) project was launched in 2009. Expanding the service to patients above 25 years old, JCEP aims to deliver a territory-wide specialized EI service to adult-onset psychosis patients, to promote public awareness on early psychosis, and to research on the optimal intervention model and duration for early psychosis in a 4-year randomized controlled trial (RCT). Participants were randomly assigned to receive either 4 years of EI service, 2 years of EI service, or 4 years of standard care. Their symptoms, neurocognitive functions, psychosocial well-being and health economics were regularly assessed. RESULTS: To date, 360 patients were recruited into the RCT, and 740 patients were recruited in a 2-year naturalistic study. Prospective, longitudinal follow-up assessments of these patients are still underway. CONCLUSIONS: JCEP is the first EI project to provide adult early psychosis service in Chinese population. Future data would help to address the optimal duration of EI and its cost-effectiveness. This would also assist regional and international mental health development.

Predicting 1-year risk for relapse in patients who have discontinued or continued quetiapine after remission from first-episode psychosis.

OBJECTIVE: Relapse is common among patients with psychotic disorders. Identification of relapse predictors is important for decision regarding maintenance medication. Naturalistic studies often identify medication non-adherence as a dominant predictor. There are relatively few studies for predictors where adherence is already known. It is this situation i.e., discontinuation of medication that predictors will be most useful. We identify predictors for relapse in situations of (i) discontinuation and (ii) continuation of maintenance medication. METHOD: Analysis of relapse predictors is based on a randomized controlled study (n=178) comparing relapse rates between patients who discontinued or continued medication for at least 1 year following first-episode psychosis. Demographic, clinical and neurocognitive variables were assessed at baseline as predictors of relapse within 1 year. RESULTS: Risk of relapse was 79% in the discontinuation group and 41% in the maintenance group. Predictors in the discontinuation group were diagnosis of schizophrenia, poorer semantic fluency performance, and higher blink rate. Predictors in the continuation group were disinhibition soft signs and more general psychopathology symptoms. CONCLUSION: Different predictors of relapse were identified for first episode psychosis patients who discontinued and continued maintenance medication. Neurocognitive dysfunctions are important predictors for both groups. While signs of frontal dysfunction and dopamine hyperactivity predict relapse in the discontinuation group, sign of cognitive disinhibition predicts relapse in the continuation group.

A 3-year retrospective cohort study of predictors of relapse in first-episode psychosis in Hong Kong.

OBJECTIVE: Relapses in psychosis are costly and may have irreversible consequences. Relapse prevention is thus critical in the treatment of schizophrenia. Apart from medication discontinuation, a consistent relapse predictor has not been identified due to limitations in previous studies. We aim to investigate relapse predictors in a large cohort of patients with first-episode psychosis. METHOD: This is a retrospective cohort study designed to evaluate relapses in first-episode psychosis patients in 3 years. A total of 1400 patients' case records were retrieved from a hospital database. Potential relapse predictors including demographic variables, baseline clinical measures, medication adherence, and residual positive symptoms upon clinical stabilization were collected. RESULTS: The cumulative relapse rates were 19.3% by year 1, 38.4% by year 2, and 48.1% by year 3. Multivariate Cox-proportional hazards regression analysis revealed that medication non-adherence, smoking, schizophrenia diagnosis, younger age, and shorter baseline hospitalization were associated with an increased risk of relapse in 3 years. CONCLUSIONS: Nearly half of patients relapsed after 3 years following their first-episode psychosis. Smoking as a predictor of relapse is an intriguing new finding supportive of a link between nicotinic receptors and the dopamine system. Their relationship deserves further investigations with potential clinical implications for relapse prevention.

Predictors of help-seeking duration in adult-onset psychosis in Hong Kong.

PURPOSE: Delay in receiving treatment in psychosis may lead to adverse consequences. We examined the predictors for help-seeking duration in adult-onset psychosis Chinese patients in Hong Kong. We hypothesized that factors which are more related to the illness manifestation would be predictive of waiting time before any help-seeking initiation, and factors which are more related to one's knowledge about mental health services would be predictive of help-seeking duration. METHODS: First-episode patients with psychosis were recruited from the Jockey Club Early Psychosis project. They were asked to report retrospectively all help-seeking behaviors involved since their first occurrence of psychotic symptoms until receipt of effective psychiatric treatment. Baseline characteristics, pre-morbid functioning and traits, and mode of illness onset were assessed. RESULTS: Help-seeking pattern was analyzed in 360 patients who had subsequently reached the psychiatric services. They had an average of 2.5 help-seeking contacts. Nearly half of the first help-seeking process was initiated by family members. Only 1 % approached priests or traditional healers as the first step in help-seeking. Whereas a gradual mode of onset was significantly associated with longer waiting time to first help-seeking initiation, more premorbid schizoid and schizotypal traits and a migrant status were related to longer help-seeking duration. CONCLUSIONS: Current findings suggested that family members were the key decision makers in initiating help-seeking. Longer help-seeking duration in migrants has significant implications to both local and global mental health policy.

Screening and assessing ideas and delusions of reference using a semi-structured interview scale: a validation study of the Ideas of Reference Interview Scale (IRIS) in early psychosis patients.

BACKGROUND: Ideas and delusions of reference (IOR/DOR) are an important but underrecognized research target. Difficulty in their reliable assessment has been a barrier. A screening and assessment tool incorporating a self-information processing framework, the Ideas of Reference Interview Scale (IRIS), was developed and validated in patients with early psychosis. METHODS: Comprehensive review of IOR/DOR phenomena in the literature and pilot interviews were conducted for scale item development. Self-referential themes were summarized into 15 items. A consecutive sample of 137 outpatients with early psychosis was interviewed using IRIS. Their IOR/DOR experiences were also rated independently by clinicians on the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS) and self-rated using the IOR subscale on the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ). Inter-rater reliability of IRIS was examined in a subsample of 15 participants. RESULTS: IRIS demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha 0.80), inter-rater reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient 0.95), and divergent validity with other symptoms. IRIS correlated satisfactorily with the IOR/DOR item or subscale on SAPS and SPQ (Spearman's rho = 0.71 and 0.47, respectively). DISCUSSION: IRIS provided a reliable high-resolution tool for progressing single-symptom research into IOR/DOR, a potential target feature of schizophrenia. The scale allows future investigation into self-referential processing and detailed phenomenological comparison in different clinical, subclinical, and healthy populations.

Early intervention for psychotic disorders: Real-life implementation in Hong Kong.

Hong Kong is among the first few cities in Asia to have implemented early intervention for psychosis in 2001. Substantial changes in psychosis service have since taken place. We reviewed available outcome data in Hong Kong, with reference to the philosophy of early intervention in psychosis, discussing experience and lessons learned from the implementation process, and future opportunities and challenges. Data accumulated in the past decade provided evidence for the benefits and significance of early intervention programmes: patients under the care of early intervention service showed improved functioning, milder symptoms, and fewer hospitalizations and suicides. Early intervention is more cost-effective compared with standard care. Stigma and misconception remains an issue, and public awareness campaigns are underway. In recent years, a critical mass is being formed, and Hong Kong has witnessed the unfolding of public service extension, new projects and organizations, and increasing interest from the community. Several major platforms are in place for coherent efforts, including the public Early Assessment Service for Young people with psychosis (EASY) programme, the Psychosis Studies and Intervention (PSI) research unit, the independent Hong Kong Early Psychosis Intervention Society (EPISO), the Jockey Club Early Psychosis (JCEP) project, and the postgraduate Psychological Medicine (Psychosis Studies) programme. The first decade of early intervention work has been promising; consolidation and further development is needed on many fronts of research, service and education.

Persistent negative symptoms in first-episode schizophrenia: a prospective three-year follow-up study.

BACKGROUND: Negative symptoms are a core feature of schizophrenia. The evolution and trajectory of primary negative symptoms were under-studied. We aimed at evaluating the prevalence and stability of primary negative symptoms, and factors associated with persistent primary negative symptoms in a first-episode sample. METHOD: Ninety-three Hong Kong Chinese aged 18 to 55 years presenting with first-episode schizophrenia-spectrum disorder were studied. Data on premorbid adjustment, socio-demographics, and baseline clinical and cognitive profiles were obtained. Psychopathological and vocational reassessments were conducted at 12, 24 and 36 months. Primary negative symptoms were defined as the presence of clinically significant negative symptoms excluding depression and extra-pyramidal signs. RESULTS: At baseline, 25.8% of subjects exhibited primary negative symptoms. A quarter of patients had their initial primary negative symptoms status retained 12 months after treatment initiation. In both Year 2 and Year 3 of study period, around 70% of subjects had their primary negative symptoms status maintained for 12 months. At the end of three-year follow-up, 23.7% were categorized as having persistent primary negative symptoms. Male sex, unemployment at intake, prolonged duration of untreated psychosis, poorer premorbid academic and social functioning, poorer insight and worse vocational outcome were found to be associated with persistent primary negative symptoms. CONCLUSION: Clinical status of primary negative symptoms in first-episode schizophrenia-spectrum disorder was unstable in the initial year of treatment. Baseline symptom assessment may not reliably predict development of persistent primary negative symptoms. Studying negative symptoms should take into account the longitudinal perspective, especially in the early course of psychotic disorders.

Three-year outcome of phase-specific early intervention for first-episode psychosis: a cohort study in Hong Kong.

AIM: Although phase-specific early intervention for first-episode psychosis has been implemented in many different parts of the world, limited medium-term outcome data are available in non-Western populations with relatively low mental health resources. The study aimed to determine the effectiveness of phase-specific early intervention in first-episode psychosis. METHOD: In this cohort study, we compared the 3-year outcome of 700 first-episode psychosis patients who received phase-specific early intervention with that of 700 patients matched for age, sex and diagnosis who received standard psychiatric care prior to early intervention. Using a structured data acquisition procedure, we determined functional outcome, symptom levels, relapse, recovery, suicidal behaviour and service utilization from clinical records. RESULTS: Patients in the early intervention group had longer full-time employment or study (P<0.001), fewer days of hospitalization (P<0.001), less severe positive symptoms (P=0.006), less severe negative symptoms (P =0.001), fewer suicides (P=0.009) and fewer disengagements (P=0.002) than the historical control group. Additionally, more patients in the early intervention group experienced a period of recovery (P=0.001), but the two groups had similar rates of relapse (P=0.08) and durations of untreated psychosis (P=0.72). CONCLUSIONS: The 3-year outcome in phase-specific early intervention compared favourably with that of standard psychiatric care, particularly with respect to functional outcome and reduction in hospitalizations, suicides and disengagements. However, intervention did not appear to reduce the rate of relapse.